A Guide to Soil Quality Monitoring for Long Term Ecosystem Sustainability on Northern Region National Forests

SOLO HOME > MONITORING > CONCERNS

MONITORING CONCERNS

• Burned Soil
• Compaction
• Displacement
• Ground Cover
• Nutrient Cycling
• Puddling
• Regeneration
• Surface Organics

[Last update: 02/15/2008]
[Most recent addition of documents: 03/07/2007]

The eight topics displayed here were identified by the soil scientists of Region 1 as the most important concerns or issues related to soil quality. Each topic has its own guidelines, methods for measurement, associated problems, methods for avoidance and amelioration, pertinent research and literature list.

BURNED SOIL

Soils are severely burned if all surface organic matter is consumed and the blackened layer is more than 1 inch deep. Oxidized soil (reddish color) is also indicative of severely burned soil.

Measurement

Guidelines

Problems

Effects

Solutions

Research summary

Literature

• DeBano, L. F. The Effect of Fire on Soil Properties (HTML)
• Fire Effects Information System (FEIS) located at http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. (FEIS summarizes and synthesizes research about living organisms in the United States—their biology, ecology, and relationship to fire.)
• Hungerford, R. D.; Harrington, M. G.; Frandsen, W. H.; Ryan, K. C.; Niehoff, G. J. Influence of Fire on Factors that Affect Site Productivity (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Page-Dumroese, D.; Jurgensen, M.; Abbott, A.; Rice, T.; Tirocke, J.; Farley, S.; DeHart, S. Monitoring Changes in Soil Quality from Post-fire Logging in the Inland Northwest (PDF available at http://forest.moscowfsl.wsu.edu/smp/docs/dumroese/RMRS-P-41_605-614.pdf). In:  Andrews, Patricia L.; Butler, Bret W., comps. 2006. Fuels Management. How to Measure Success: Conference Proceedings. 28-30 March 2006; Portland, OR. Proceedings RMRS-P-41. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. pp 605–614.

COMPACTION

Measurement

No quantitative measure of soil compaction exists. Instead, approximations based on changes in soil characteristics are substituted for direct measurement.

Procedures:

• Core sampling - Deb: Is there a paper describing this procedure (thumping)?
• Cone Penetrometer - Locate a user's manual.
• Spade - Locate a description (Clayton, et al. 1987).
• Infiltrometer (percolation test) - ???

Guidelines

A 15% increase (20% in volcanic ash soils) in natural bulk density or a 50% reduction in the infiltration rate is considered detrimental.

Problems

Soil compaction is accompanied by decreases in soil permeability and porosity, air exchange, root penetration, and infiltration. Associated problems include

• loss of moisture holding capacity
• decreased rooting zone
• loss of C, N, and P sources
• changes in soil pH
• changes in soil bulk density
• increased erosion due to increased overland flow

Effects

Soil compaction presents a physical barrier to root growth, inhibiting seedling and mature tree growth. Compaction may also reduce tree growth by reducing oxygenation of the roots, preventing adequate water movement, and limiting mycorrhizal growth (Froehlich and McNabb 1984).

Solutions

To Avoid or Reduce Effects	To Mitigate Effects
Operate over frozen ground or deep snow Avoid operations on moist or wet soils Operate over slash Restrict equipment to dedicated roads and trails Restrict size and type of equipment	Surface tillage Subsoiling
	Activity Sites

Research Summary

Factors affecting soil compactability include:

• Soil moisture
• Soil texture
• Soil bulk density

Links

• San Dimas Technology and Development Center
  (http://fsweb.sdtdc.wo.fs.fed.us/programs/im/Soil%20Projects/Compaction/im%20template.shtml)

Literature

• Adams, P. W.; H. A. Froehlich. Compaction of Forest Soils (PDF - 1.3 MB). 1984.
• Amaranthus, Michael P. and David E. Steinfeld. Soil compaction after yarding of small-diameter Douglas-fir with a small tractor in southwest Oregon (PDF - 707 KB). 1997.
• Amaranthus, Michael P., Debbie Page-Dumroese, Al Harvey, Efren Cazares and Larry F. Bednar. Soil compaction and organic matter affect conifer seedling nonmycorrhizal and ectomycorrhizal root tip abundance and diversity (HTML). 1996.
• Andrus, C. W.; H. A. Froehlich. An Evaluation of Four Implements Used to Till Compacted Forest Soils in the Pacific Northwest (PDF - 1.2 MB). 1983.
• Belnap, J. Impacts of Trampling Soils in Southeast Utah Ecosystems (HTML). 1998.
• Blank, R. T.; T. Svejcar. Grazing Influences on Selected Soil Attributes in a Sierra Nevada Riparian Meadow (HTML). Proceedings, AWRA's 2000 summer specialty conference: riparian ecology and management in multi-land use watersheds: August 28–31, 2000, Portland, Oregon. Middleburg, VA: American Water Resources Association, c2000. Technical publication series; no. TPS 00-2: p. 269–273.
• Busse, Matt D.; Samual E. Beattie; Robert F. Powers; Felipe G. Sanchez and Allan E. Tiarks. Microbial community responses in forest mineral soil to compaction, organic matter removal, and vegetation control. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22169). 2006. 36(3): 577–588.
• Carter, Mason C.; Thomas J. Dean; Ziyin Wang and Ray A. Newbold. Impacts of harvesting and postharvest treatments on soil bulk density, soil strength, and early growth of Pinus taeda in the Gulf Coastal Plain: a Long-Term Soil Productivity affiliated study. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/25274). 2006. 36(3): 601–614.
• Cullen, Steve; Clint Montagne. Region 1 Soil Compaction Study: Final Report to the United States Forest Service (PDF - 5.8 MB; applies to Bitterroot NF, Flathead NF and Kootenai NF). January 1981.
• Davis, S. Effectiveness of a Winged Subsoiler in Ameliorating a Compacted Clayey Forest Soil (PDF - 316 KB). 1983
• Fleming, Robert L.; Michael F. Laporte; Gary D. Hogan and Paul W. Hazlett. Effects of harvesting and soil disturbance on soil CO₂ efflux from a jack pine forest. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available). 2006. 36(3): 589–600.
• Fleming, Robert L.; Robert F. Powers; Neil W. Foster; J. Marty Kranabetter; D. Andrew Scott; Felix Ponder, Jr.; Shannon Berch; William K. Chapman; Richard D. Kabzems; Kim H. Ludovici; David M. Morris; Deborah S. Page-Dumroese; Paul T. Sanborn; Felipe G. Sanchez; Douglas M. Stone and Allan E. Tiarks. Effects of organic matter removal, soil compaction, and vegetation control on 5-year seedling performance: a regional comparison of Long-Term Soil Productivity sites. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22170). 2006. 36(3): 529–550.
• Froehlich, H. A.; D. H. McNabb. Minimizing Soil Compaction in Pacific Northwest Forests (PDF - 2.7 MB). 1983.
• Froehlich, H. A.; D. W. R. Miles. Winged subsoiler tills compacted forest soils (PDF - 436 KB). 1984.
• Geist, M. J.; H. A. Froehlich. Principles and Processes of Subsoiling in Forest Ecosystems (PDF - 456 KB).
• Graham, R. T.; Minore, D.; Harvey, A. E.; Jurgensen, M. F.;. Page-Dumroese, D. S. Soil Management as an Integral Part of Silvicultural Systems (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Greacen, E. L.; R. Sands. Compaction of Forest Soils: A Review (PDF - 2.7 MB).
• Han, H.-S.; D. S. Page-Dumroese; S.-K. Han and J. Tirocke. Effects of slash, machine passes, and soil moisture on penetration resistance in a cut-to-length harvesting. International Journal of Forest Engineering (abstract and full text available at http://www.lib.unb.ca/Texts/JFE/index.html). 2006. 17(2): 11–24.
• Hardesty, Linda, Christopher E. Gebauer and John Buckhouse. Forest Soil Characteristics After Twenty-Six Years of Cattle and Big Game Grazing in Northeastern Oregon (PDF - 518 KB). 1996. (Part of the Northern Region Soils Workshop, May 20-22, 1997.)
• Heninger, R.; W. Scott; R. Miller; H. Anderson. Case Study: Growth of Douglas-fir on Cultivated and Non-Cultivated Skid Trails in Coastal Washington and Western Oregon (PDF - 112 KB). 1983.
• Howes, Steve; John Hazard, and J. Michael Geist. 1983. Guidelines for sampling some physical conditions of surface soils. (PDF - 3.2 MB) U.S. Forest Service publication R6-RWM-146-1983. Pacific Northwest Region. Portland, OR. July 1983. 34 pp.
• Jurgensen, M. F.; A. E. Harvey; R. T. Graham; D. S. Page-Dumroese; J. R. Tonn; M. J. Larsen; T. B. Jain. Impacts of Timber Harvesting on Soil Organic Matter, Nitrogen, Productivity, and Health of Inland Northwest Forests (HTML).
1997.
• McNabb, D. H.; H. A. Froehlich. Conceptual Model for Predicting Forest Productivity Losses from Soil Compaction (PDF - 568 KB). 1983.
• Miller, R. E.; W. Scott; J. W. Hazard. Soil compaction and conifer growth after tractor yarding at three coastal Washington locations (PDF - 1.4 MB).
• National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc. (NCASI). 2004. Effects of Heavy Equipment on Physical Properties of Soils and on Long-Term Productivity: A Review of Literature and Current Research. Technical Bulletin No. 0887. Research Triangle Park, NC: National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc. (PDF located at the National Council for Air and Stream Improvement's web site: http://www.ncasi.org/publications/Detail.aspx?id=2649)
• Page-Dumroese, D. S. Susceptibility of Volcanic Ash-Influenced Soil in Northern Idaho to Mechanical Compaction (PDF - 632 KB). 1993.
• Page-Dumroese, D. S.; A. E. Harvey; M. F. Jurgensen and M. P. Amaranthus. Impacts of soil compaction and tree stump removal on soil properties and outplanted seedlings in northern Idaho, USA. Can. J. Soil Sci. (abstract available at http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/aic-journals/feb98ab.html). 1998.
• Page-Dumroese, D.; Jurgensen, M.; Abbott, A.; Rice, T.; Tirocke, J.; Farley, S.; DeHart, S. Monitoring Changes in Soil Quality from Post-fire Logging in the Inland Northwest (PDF available at http://forest.moscowfsl.wsu.edu/smp/docs/dumroese/RMRS-P-41_605-614.pdf). In:  Andrews, Patricia L.; Butler, Bret W., comps. 2006. Fuels Management. How to Measure Success: Conference Proceedings. 28-30 March 2006; Portland, OR. Proceedings RMRS-P-41. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. pp 605–614.
• Page-Dumroese, Deborah S.; Martin F. Jurgensen; Allan E. Tiarks; Felix Ponder, Jr.; Felipe G. Sanchez; Robert L. Fleming, J.; Marty Kranabetter, Robert F. Powers; Douglas M. Stone; John D. Elioff and D. Andrew Scott. Soil physical property changes at the North American Long-Term Soil Productivity study sites: 1 and 5 years after compaction. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22171). 2006. 36(3): 551–564.
• Page-Dumroese, Deborah; Miller, Richard; Mital, Jim; McDaniel, Paul; Miller, Dan, tech. eds. Volcanic-Ash-Derived Forest Soils of the Inland Northwest: Properties and Implications for Management and Restoration. [entire proceedings available at http://forest.moscowfsl.wsu.edu/smp/docs/dumroese/RMRS-P-44.pdf (PDF - 6.7 MB); individual papers can be downloaded separately at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p044.html]. 2007. (Conference was held November 9–10, 2005 in Coeur d'Alene, Idaho.)
• Sharrow, S. Soil Compaction During Forest Grazing (HTML). 2003.
• WO-WSA-2 – Proceedings of the Soil Quality Standards Symposium (PDF - 4 MB), Oct. 23, 1990, San Antonio, TX, USDA Forest Service Watershed and Air Management, WO-WSA-2, Washington D.C., February 1992.
  [Papers within publication that concern compaction are Soil Physical Properties as a Measure of Cropland Productivity by K. R. Olson; Soil Porosity as an Indication of Forest and Rangeland Soil Condition (Compaction) and Relative Productivity by E. B. Alexander and J. C. McLaughlin]

DISPLACEMENT

Detrimental displacement is displacement that results in "the loss of as much as 1 inch or one-half of the humus-enriched surface layer (A-horizon), whichever is less." The loss of the organic layer alone could be detrimental on some marginal sites.

Lateral displacement of soil may decrease productivity by disruption of water distribution, damage to root systems or, in extreme cases, uprooting and toppling of trees. Studies have attempted to quantify the relationship between lateral soil displacement and productivity (Clayton 1987).

Natural erosion and slope failure are considered to be beyond the scope of this document, except where efforts to control them have altered the landscape forming processes (sedimentation dams, post-harvest mulching, contouring, etc.).

Measurement

Guidelines

Problems

Effects

Solutions

Research summary

Literature

• Burroughs, Edward R. Jr. and John G. King. Reduction of Soil Erosion on Forest Roads (PDF - 1.9 MB). 1989. (GTR-INT-264)
• Howes, Steve; John Hazard, and J. Michael Geist. 1983. Guidelines for sampling some physical conditions of surface soils. (PDF - 3.2 MB) U.S. Forest Service publication R6-RWM-146-1983. Pacific Northwest Region. Portland, OR. July 1983. 34 pp.
• Jurgensen, M. F.; A. E. Harvey; R. T. Graham; D. S. Page-Dumroese; J. R. Tonn; M. J. Larsen; T. B. Jain. Impacts of Timber Harvesting on Soil Organic Matter, Nitrogen, Productivity, and Health of Inland Northwest Forests (HTML). 1997.
• Megahan, W. F. Erosion and Site Productivity in Western-Montane Forest Ecosystems (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Moll, Jeffry E. A Guide to Road Closure and Obliteration in the Forest Service. (PDF available at USDA Forest Service Engineering Publications). 1996.
• WO-WSA-2 – Proceedings of the Soil Quality Standards Symposium (PDF - 4 MB), Oct. 23, 1990, San Antonio, TX, USDA Forest Service Watershed and Air Management, WO-WSA-2, Washington D.C., February 1992.
  [Papers within publication that concern displacement are Soil Loss Tolerance as Related to Rangeland Productivity by Leonard F. DeBano and M. Karl Wood; Soil Physical Properties as a Measure of Cropland Productivity by K. R. Olson; Soil Porosity as an Indication of Forest and Rangeland Soil Condition (Compaction) and Relative Productivity by E. B. Alexander and J. C. McLaughlin]

GROUND COVER

The minimum cover, following the cessation of disturbance in an activity area, should be sufficient to prevent accelerated runoff and prevent erosion from exceeding the rates of natural soil formation.

Erosion rates are dependent on soil erodibility (k-factor), erosivity (rainfall factor), and slope gradient and length. Local adjustment of these factors by geographic area or potential natural plant community types may be required.

On rangelands, at least 80% of the A or surface horizon should be occupied by abundant fine and very fine roots.

Measurement

Guidelines

Problems

Effects

Solutions

Research summary

Literature

• Busse, Matt D.; Samual E. Beattie; Robert F. Powers; Felipe G. Sanchez and Allan E. Tiarks. Microbial community responses in forest mineral soil to compaction, organic matter removal, and vegetation control. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22169). 2006. 36(3): 577–588.
• Everett, R.; Zabowski, D.; McColley, P. Vegetative Restoration of Western-Montane Forest Soils (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Fleming, Robert L.; Robert F. Powers; Neil W. Foster; J. Marty Kranabetter; D. Andrew Scott; Felix Ponder, Jr.; Shannon Berch; William K. Chapman; Richard D. Kabzems; Kim H. Ludovici; David M. Morris; Deborah S. Page-Dumroese; Paul T. Sanborn; Felipe G. Sanchez; Douglas M. Stone and Allan E. Tiarks. Effects of organic matter removal, soil compaction, and vegetation control on 5-year seedling performance: a regional comparison of Long-Term Soil Productivity sites. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22170). 2006. 36(3): 529–550.
• Hironaka, M.; Fosberg, M. A.; Neiman, K. E. Jr. The Relationship Between Soils and Vegetation (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Jensen, M. E. Ecological Classification and Cumulative Soil Effects (PDF - 449 KB). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Wilson, S. D. and H. R. Kleb. 1996. The influence of prairie and forest vegetation on soil moisture and available nitrogen. The American Midland Naturalist. 136: 222–231.

NUTRIENT CYCLING

Measurement

Guidelines

Problems

Effects

Solutions

Research summary

Literature

• Binkley, D. Connecting Soils with Forest Productivity (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Blank, R. T.; T. Svejcar. Grazing Influences on Selected Soil Attributes in a Sierra Nevada Riparian Meadow (HTML). Proceedings, AWRA's 2000 summer specialty conference: riparian ecology and management in multi-land use watersheds: August 28–31, 2000, Portland, Oregon. Middleburg, VA: American Water Resources Association, c2000. Technical publication series; no. TPS 00-2: p. 269–273.
• DeBano, L. F. The Effect of Fire on Soil Properties (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Edmonds, R. L. Organic Matter Decomposition in Western United States Forests (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Fleming, Robert L.; Michael F. Laporte; Gary D. Hogan and Paul W. Hazlett. Effects of harvesting and soil disturbance on soil CO2 efflux from a jack pine forest. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available). 2006. 36(3): 589–600.
• Geist, J. M. ; Cochran, P. H. Influences of Volcanic Ash and Pumice Deposition on Productivity of Western Interior Forest Soils (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Hardesty, Linda, Christopher E. Gebauer and John Buckhouse. Forest Soil Characteristics After Twenty-Six Years of Cattle and Big Game Grazing in Northeastern Oregon (PDF - 518 KB). 1996. (Part of the Northern Region Soils Workshop, May 20-22, 1997.)
• Harvey, Alan E., Martin F. Jurgensen and Michael J. Larsen. Intensive Fiber Utilization and Prescribed Fire: Effects on the Microbial Ecology of Forests (PDF - 3.1 MB). 1976. (GTR-INT-28)
• Hungerford, R. D.; Harrington, M. G.; Frandsen, W. H.; Ryan, K. C.; Niehoff, G. J. Influence of Fire on Factors that Affect Site Productivity (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Jurgensen, M. F.; A. E. Harvey; R. T. Graham; D. S. Page-Dumroese; J. R. Tonn; M. J. Larsen; T. B. Jain. Impacts of Timber Harvesting on Soil Organic Matter, Nitrogen, Productivity, and Health of Inland Northwest Forests (HTML). 1997.
• Jurgensen, M. F.; Tonn, J. R.; Graham, R. T.; Harvey, A. E.; Geier-Hayes, K. Nitrogen Fixation in Forest Soils of the Inland Northwest (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Page-Dumroese, D. S. and M. F. Jurgensen. Soil carbon and nitrogen pools in mid- to late- successional forest stands of the northwestern United States: potential impact of fire. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available). 2006.
• Page-Dumroese, Deborah S.; Martin F. Jurgensen; Allan E. Tiarks; Felix Ponder, Jr.; Felipe G. Sanchez; Robert L. Fleming, J.; Marty Kranabetter, Robert F. Powers; Douglas M. Stone; John D. Elioff and D. Andrew Scott. Soil physical property changes at the North American Long-Term Soil Productivity study sites: 1 and 5 years after compaction. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22171). 2006. 36(3): 551–564.
• Sanchez, Felipe G.; Allan E. Tiarks; J. Marty Kranabetter; Deborah S. Page-Dumroese; Robert F. Powers; Paul T. Sanborn and William K. Chapman. Effects of organic matter removal and soil compaction on fifth-year mineral soil carbon and nitrogen contents for sites across the United States and Canada. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22654). 2006. 36(3): 565–576.
• Stark, N. M.; Zuuring, H. Minimizing the Adverse Impacts of Timber Harvest in the Northern Rocky Mountains (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Wilson, S. D. and H. R. Kleb. 1996. The influence of prairie and forest vegetation on soil moisture and available nitrogen. The American Midland Naturalist. 136: 222–231.

PUDDLING

The deformation of wet soil with sufficient clay results in puddling. Soil puddling that adversely affects hydrologic function and site productivity is detrimental.

Measurement

Guidelines

Problems

Effects

Solutions

Research summary

Literature

• Heninger, R.; W. Scott; R. Miller; H. Anderson. Case Study: Growth of Douglas-fir on Cultivated and Non-Cultivated Skid Trails in Coastal Washington and Western Oregon (PDF - 112 KB). 1983.
• Howes, Steve; John Hazard, and J. Michael Geist. 1983. Guidelines for sampling some physical conditions of surface soils. (PDF - 3.2 MB) U.S. Forest Service publication R6-RWM-146-1983. Pacific Northwest Region. Portland, OR. July 1983. 34 pp.

REGENERATION

Studies from the Pacific Northwest indicate that disturbance can reduce ectomycorrhizal formation and forest regeneration. However, the degrees of reduction and impact on forest regeneration vary widely and depend on many factors. Among these are the type and severity of disturbance, ectomycorrhizal diversity, climatic conditions, biotic conditions, and the effects of nonhosts over time. Mycorrhizal formation and regeneration are most greatly impacted on severely disturbed and environmentally limited sites. The rapid occupation of such sites by ectomycorrhizal host plants following disturbance is critical to stabilizing native mycorrhizal populations that may aid forest regeneration.

Measurement

Guidelines

Problems

Effects

Solutions

Research summary

Literature

• Amaranthus, Michael P., 1991, Factors Affecting Ectomycorrhizae and Forest Regeneration Following Disturbance in the Pacific Northwest (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Carter, Mason C.; Thomas J. Dean; Ziyin Wang and Ray A. Newbold. Impacts of harvesting and postharvest treatments on soil bulk density, soil strength, and early growth of Pinus taeda in the Gulf Coastal Plain: a Long-Term Soil Productivity affiliated study. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/25274). 2006. 36(3): 601–614.
• Fire Effects Information System (FEIS) located at http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/. (FEIS summarizes and synthesizes research about living organisms in the United States—their biology, ecology, and relationship to fire.)
• Graham, R. T.; Minore, D.; Harvey, A. E.; Jurgensen, M. F.;. Page-Dumroese, D. S. Soil Management as an Integral Part of Silvicultural Systems (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Hardesty, Linda, Christopher E. Gebauer and John Buckhouse. Forest Soil Characteristics After Twenty-Six Years of Cattle and Big Game Grazing in Northeastern Oregon (PDF - 518 KB). 1996. (Part of the Northern Region Soils Workshop, May 20-22, 1997.)
• Sommer, M.; Adams, D.; Mahler, R. Soil Properties as a Factor in Regeneration Failures in the Grand Fir Mosaic—Preliminary Results (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.

SURFACE ORGANICS

Currently, there are no specific requirements for litter retention. Ground cover requirements generally assure sufficient litter retention.

The minimum amounts of large woody debris required to maintain nutrient supplies adequate to sustain site productivity are ascertained by research studies (Harvey, 1987).

In general, a figure of 15 tons per acre is used for harvested or burned sites. This figure varies by habitat type, from 10 to 40 tons per acre.

Measurement

Guidelines

Problems

Effects

Solutions

Research summary

Literature

• Amaranthus, Michael P., Debbie Page-Dumroese, Al Harvey, Efren Cazares and Larry F. Bednar. Soil compaction and organic matter affect conifer seedling nonmycorrhizal and ectomycorrhizal root tip abundance and diversity (HTML). 1996.
• Busse, Matt D.; Samual E. Beattie; Robert F. Powers; Felipe G. Sanchez and Allan E. Tiarks. Microbial community responses in forest mineral soil to compaction, organic matter removal, and vegetation control. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22169). 2006. 36(3): 577–588.
• DeBano, L. F. The Effect of Fire on Soil Properties (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Edmonds, R. L. Organic Matter Decomposition in Western United States Forests (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Fleming, Robert L.; Michael F. Laporte; Gary D. Hogan and Paul W. Hazlett. Effects of harvesting and soil disturbance on soil CO2 efflux from a jack pine forest. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available). 2006. 36(3): 589–600.
• Fleming, Robert L.; Robert F. Powers; Neil W. Foster; J. Marty Kranabetter; D. Andrew Scott; Felix Ponder, Jr.; Shannon Berch; William K. Chapman; Richard D. Kabzems; Kim H. Ludovici; David M. Morris; Deborah S. Page-Dumroese; Paul T. Sanborn; Felipe G. Sanchez; Douglas M. Stone and Allan E. Tiarks. Effects of organic matter removal, soil compaction, and vegetation control on 5-year seedling performance: a regional comparison of Long-Term Soil Productivity sites. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22170). 2006. 36(3): 529–550.
• Graham, R. T.; Minore, D.; Harvey, A. E.; Jurgensen, M. F.;. Page-Dumroese, D. S. Soil Management as an Integral Part of Silvicultural Systems (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Hardesty, Linda, Christopher E. Gebauer and John Buckhouse. Forest Soil Characteristics After Twenty-Six Years of Cattle and Big Game Grazing in Northeastern Oregon (PDF - 518 KB). 1996. (Part of the Northern Region Soils Workshop, May 20-22, 1997.)
• Harvey, A. E.; Page-Dumroese, D. S.; Graham, R. T.; Jurgensen, M. F. Ectomycorrhizal Activity and Conifer Growth Interactions in Western-Montane Forest Soils (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Harvey, Alan E., Martin F. Jurgensen and Michael J. Larsen. Intensive Fiber Utilization and Prescribed Fire: Effects on the Microbial Ecology of Forests (PDF - 3.1 MB). 1976. (GTR-INT-28)
• Harvey, Alan E., Michael Geist, Gerald McDonald, Martin F. Jurgensen, Patrick H. Cochran, Darlene Zabowski and Robert T. Meurisse. Biotic and Abiotic Processes in Eastside Ecosystems: The Effects of Management on Soil Properties, Processes, and Productivity (available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/6286). 1994. (GTR-PNW-323)
• Jurgensen, M. F.; A. E. Harvey; R. T. Graham; D. S. Page-Dumroese; J. R. Tonn; M. J. Larsen; T. B. Jain. Impacts of Timber Harvesting on Soil Organic Matter, Nitrogen, Productivity, and Health of Inland Northwest Forests (HTML). 1997.
• Page-Dumroese, D. S.; A. E. Harvey; M. F. Jurgensen and M. P. Amaranthus. Impacts of soil compaction and tree stump removal on soil properties and outplanted seedlings in northern Idaho, USA. Can. J. Soil Sci. (abstract available at http://pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/aic-journals/feb98ab.html). 1998.
• Page-Dumroese, D.; Harvey, A.; Jurgensen, M.; Graham, R. Organic Matter Function in the Western-Montane Forest Soil System (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Page-Dumroese, D.; Graham, R. T.; Harvey, A. E. Soil Organic Matter Effects on Douglas-Fir Growth in Northern Idaho Soils (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Sanchez, Felipe G.; Allan E. Tiarks; J. Marty Kranabetter; Deborah S. Page-Dumroese; Robert F. Powers; Paul T. Sanborn and William K. Chapman. Effects of organic matter removal and soil compaction on fifth-year mineral soil carbon and nitrogen contents for sites across the United States and Canada. Can. J. For. Res. (abstract and full text available at http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/pubs/22654). 2006. 36(3): 565–576.
• Stark, N. M.; Zuuring, H. Minimizing the Adverse Impacts of Timber Harvest in the Northern Rocky Mountains (HTML). In: Proceedings—Management and Productivity of Western-Montane Forest Soils, April 10–12, 1990, Boise, ID, USDA Forest Service General Technical Report INT-280, August 1991.
• Wilson, S. D. and H. R. Kleb. 1996. The influence of prairie and forest vegetation on soil moisture and available nitrogen. The American Midland Naturalist. 136: 222–231.
• WO-WSA-2 – Proceedings of the Soil Quality Standards Symposium (PDF - 4 MB), Oct. 23, 1990, San Antonio, TX, USDA Forest Service Watershed and Air Management, WO-WSA-2, Washington D.C., February 1992.
  [Paper within publication that concerns surface organics is Soil Organic Matter as a Measure of Forest Soil Productivity: Some Critical Questions by John I. Blake and Gregory A. Ruark]